Comparing changes in eating disorder psychopathology and comorbid symptoms over treatment in anorexia nervosa and atypical anorexia nervosa in a partial hospitalization program.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to compare treatment trajectories in anorexia nervosa (AN) and atypical AN. METHOD: Adolescents and adults with AN (n = 319) or atypical AN (n = 67) in a partial hospitalization program (PHP) completed diagnostic interviews and self-report questionnaires measuring eating disorder (ED), depression, and anxiety symptoms throughout treatment. RESULTS: Premorbid weight loss did not differ between diagnoses. Individuals with atypical AN had more comorbid diagnoses, but groups did not differ on specific diagnoses. ED psychopathology and comorbid symptoms of depression/anxiety did not differ at admission between groups nor did rate of change in ED psychopathology and comorbid symptoms of depression/anxiety from admission to 1-month. From admission to discharge, individuals with atypical AN had a faster reduction in ED psychopathology and comorbid symptoms of depression and anxiety (ps < 0.05; rs = 0.01-0.32); however, there were no group differences in ED psychopathology or depression symptoms at discharge (ps>.50; ds = .01-.30). Individuals with atypical AN had lower anxiety at discharge compared to individuals with AN (p = 0.05; d = .4). Length of stay did not differ between groups (p = 0.11; d = .21). DISCUSSION: Groups had similar ED treatment trajectories, suggesting more similarities than differences. PHP may also be effective for AAN. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: This study supports previous research that individuals with AN and atypical AN have more similarities than differences. Results from this study indicate that individuals with AN and atypical AN have similar treatment outcomes for both ED psychopathology and depressive symptoms; however, individuals with atypical AN have lower anxiety symptoms at discharge compared to individuals with AN. AN and atypical AN also have more symptom similarity at admission and throughout treatment, which challenges their current designation as distinct disorders.

Change in motivational bias during treatment predicts outcome in anorexia nervosa.

OBJECTIVE: Reward and punishment sensitivity are known to be altered in anorexia nervosa (AN). Most research has examined these constructs separately although motivated behavior is influenced by considering both the potential for reward and risk of punishment. The present study sought to compare the relative balance of reward and punishment sensitivity in AN versus healthy controls (HCs) and examine whether motivational bias is associated with AN symptoms and treatment outcomes. METHODS: Adolescents and adults with AN (n = 262) in a partial hospitalization program completed the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q), Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System (BIS/BAS) scales, and Sensitivity to Punishment/Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ) at admission and discharge. HCs (HC; n = 90) completed the BIS/BAS and SPSRQ. Motivational Bias Scores were calculated to reflect the dominance of reward versus punishment sensitivity. RESULTS: Individuals with AN demonstrated significantly greater bias toward punishment sensitivity than HC. In AN, a bias toward punishment was associated with higher EDE-Q Global score at admission. Change in motivational bias during treatment predicted EDE-Q Global scores, but not BMI, at discharge, with greater increases in reward sensitivity or greater decreases in punishment sensitivity during treatment predicting lower eating pathology. Similar findings were observed using the BIS/BAS and SPSRQ. DISCUSSION: Change in motivational bias during treatment is associated with improved outcomes in AN. However, it appears that much of the change in motivational bias can be attributed to changes in punishment sensitivity, rather than reward sensitivity. Future research should examine the mechanisms underlying punishment sensitivity decreases during treatment. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Sensitivity to reward and punishment may be important treatment targets for individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN). To date, most research has considered reward and punishment sensitivity separately, rather than examining their relationship to each other. We found that the balance of reward and punishment sensitivity (i.e., motivational bias) differs between healthy controls and those with AN and that this bias is associated with eating disorder symptoms and treatment outcome.

Greater reliance on model-free learning in adolescent anorexia nervosa: An examination of dual-system reinforcement learning.

Alterations in learning and decision-making systems are thought to contribute to core features of anorexia nervosa (AN), a psychiatric disorder characterized by persistent dietary restriction and weight loss. Instrumental learning theory identifies a dual-system of habit and goal-directed decision-making, linked to model-free and model-based reinforcement learning algorithms. Difficulty arbitrating between these systems, resulting in an over-reliance on one strategy over the other, has been implicated in compulsivity and extreme goal pursuit, both of which are observed in AN. Characterizing alterations in model-free and model-based systems, and their neural correlates, in AN may clarify mechanisms contributing to symptom heterogeneity (e.g., binge/purge symptoms). This study tested whether adolescents with restricting AN (AN-R; n = 36) and binge/purge AN (AN-BP; n = 20) differentially utilized model-based and model-free learning systems compared to a healthy control group (HC; n = 28) during a Markov two-step decision-making task under conditions of reward and punishment. Associations between model-free and model-based learning and resting-state functional connectivity between neural regions of interest, including orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), nucleus accumbens (NAcc), putamen, and sensory motor cortex (SMC) were examined. AN-R showed higher utilization of model-free learning compared to HC for reward, but attenuated model-free and model-based learning for punishment. In AN-R only, higher model-based learning was associated with stronger OFC-to-left NAcc functional connectivity, regions linked to goal-directed behavior. Greater utilization of model-free learning for reward in AN-R may differentiate this group, particularly during adolescence, and facilitate dietary restriction by prioritizing habitual control in rewarding contexts.

Testing the role of associative learning in evidence-based treatments for anorexia nervosa.

Treatments for anorexia nervosa (AN) remain ineffective for many patients. Processes that can account for differential treatment outcomes remain mostly unknown. We propose that the field test the role of associative learning in current psychological treatments. We hold that this line of research could yield actionable information for understanding non-response and improving long-term outcomes. To make this argument, we define associative learning and outline its proposed role in understanding psychiatric disorders and their treatment. We then briefly review data exploring associative learning in AN. We argue that associative learning processes are implicitly implicated in existing treatments; by this rationale, baseline differences in learning may interfere with treatment response. Finally, we outline future research to test our hypotheses. Altogether, future research aimed at better understanding how associative learning may contribute to AN symptom persistence has the potential to inform novel directions in intervention research. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: There is a pressing need to improve outcomes in treatments for anorexia nervosa (AN). We propose that individual differences in associative learning-the ability to form and update associations between cues, contexts, behaviors, and outcomes-may account for differential response to existing treatments. Undertaking this research could provide an understanding of how current treatments work and inform new approaches for those who may be at risk of poor outcomes.

Expanding considerations for treating avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder at a higher level of care.

Existing descriptions of the treatment of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) at higher levels of care (HLOC) for eating disorders are limited, despite HLOC settings frequently serving patients with ARFID. The purpose of this commentary is to expand on the preliminary literature that describes pediatric ARFID treatment at HLOC by describing two specific components of our approach to treating pediatric ARFID that may not yet have traction in the current literature. Specifically, we highlight the utility of (1) treatment accommodations that appropriately account for patients' neurodevelopmental needs (e.g., executive functioning, sensory processing) and (2) the adjunctive use of Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) elements within family-based pediatric ARFID treatment. We also describe necessary future directions for research in these domains to clarify if incorporating these considerations and approaches into pediatric ARFID treatment at HLOC does indeed improve treatment outcomes.

Elevated interoceptive deficits in individuals with eating disorders and self-injurious thoughts and behaviors: A replication and extension.

INTRODUCTION: People with eating disorders (EDs) frequently report self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITBs). We aimed to replicate and extend findings demonstrating greater interoceptive deficits according to SITB severity. We predicted that interoceptive deficits would be greater among people with versus without lifetime SITBs and among those with multiple suicide attempts compared with single attempts or nonsuicidal self-injury. We also predicted that interoception would be increasingly impaired with greater current suicidality severity. METHOD: Adults (N = 118) seeking ED treatment reported current and lifetime SITBs upon admission to treatment. We used planned contrasts to compare interoceptive deficits (self-reported using the Eating Disorders Inventory) by SITB and current suicidality groups (assessed by self-report and clinical interview). RESULTS: Interoceptive deficits were greater among people with any SITB history compared to those without. People with multiple suicide attempts did not differ in interoceptive deficits from those with single attempts or only nonsuicidal self-injury. Interoceptive deficits were elevated among those with any current suicidality compared to those with no suicidal symptoms; interoceptive deficits did not differ according to severity of suicidality. CONCLUSION: Among those with EDs, interoceptive deficits are elevated among those with concurrent SITBs. Interventions aimed at improving interoception may reduce the risk for SITBs.

Effects of borderline personality disorder symptoms on dialectical behavior therapy outcomes for eating disorders.

Existing literature on the effects of borderline personality disorder (BPD) and eating disorder (ED) comorbidity in terms of clinical presentation and treatment outcome has been limited and inconclusive. The present study examined whether clients with EDs and varying levels of BPD symptoms presented with more severe ED symptoms at admission, and whether they responded to dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)-based treatment. Participants (N = 176) were adults in a DBT-based partial hospitalization program for EDs at an academic medical center. Participants completed self-report measures at admission, 1-month postadmission, discharge, and 6-month follow-up. Results suggested that patients with elevated BPD symptoms at admission had greater ED symptoms during treatment, evidenced by small to moderate effect sizes. However, patients with high BPD symptoms demonstrated steeper declines in binge eating, fasting, and parasuicidal behavior early during treatment compared to patients with low BPD symptoms. Individuals with high BPD symptoms at admission (i.e., probable BPD diagnosis) were as likely to meet remission criteria and relapse as individuals with low BPD symptoms, though this null finding may be influenced by small cell sizes. Our findings also suggest that DBT skills use does not predict changes in symptoms. In sum, our findings suggest that while clients with higher BPD symptoms may improve during DBT-based partial hospitalization, their ED symptoms may remain more severe. Future studies are needed to determine whether adjunctive treatments improve outcomes for clients with EDs and comorbid BPD symptoms in DBT programs and whether skills use quality is a better predictor of ED symptom changes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Acceptability, feasibility and short-term outcomes of temperament based therapy with support (TBT-S): a novel 5-day treatment for eating disorders.

BACKGROUND: Temperament Based Therapy with Support (TBT-S) aims to target the mechanisms underlying the aetiology and maintenance of eating disorders, and was developed as an adjunct to treatment as usual. There is limited research investigating acceptability, feasibility and possible benefits of TBT-S. Therefore, the primary aim of the current study was to assess treatment feasibility and acceptability at a tertiary specialized eating disorders service in Norway, with a secondary aim to explore possible benefits in clinical outcome. METHODS: Forty-one patients (mean age 25.3, range 18-43) and 58 supports were assessed pre- and post TBT-S. The majority of the patients were diagnosed with either anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa. Participants completed an 18-item Patient and Support Satisfaction Questionnaire, in addition to a questionnaire assessing the usefulness of the different intervention components and strategies utilised in TBT-S, as well as a 4-item treatment satisfaction questionnaire. Measures of treatment efficacy were completed at both time-points, whereas treatment acceptability was only assessed post-treatment. RESULTS: Findings reveal that TBT-S is a feasible treatment with high client satisfaction. Preliminary outcome data were also encouraging, and in line with previous studies. There were no voluntary drop-outs. All participants, both patients and supports, reported that TBT-S helped them deal more effectively with their challenges. After completing treatment, there was a significant decrease in patients' self-reported eating disorder psychopathology, psychosocial impairment and state anxiety, while trait anxiety remained unchanged. Patients also reported significantly improved social relationships, whereas supports reported a significant increase in (own) psychological health. There were no differences in family functioning. CONCLUSIONS: TBT-S is a promising new treatment for eating disorders with high acceptability scores and low treatment attrition. Future studies should aim to explore methods which can most appropriately measure the effect of TBT-S and the usefulness of the different components of this treatment. Randomised controlled trials are needed to assess treatment efficacy of TBT-S.

State-specific alterations in the neural computations underlying inhibitory control in women remitted from bulimia nervosa.

The neurocomputational processes underlying bulimia nervosa and its primary symptoms, out-of-control overeating and purging, are poorly understood. Research suggests that the brains of healthy individuals form a dynamic internal model to predict whether control is needed in each moment. This study tested the hypothesis that this computational process of inhibitory control is abnormally affected by metabolic state (being fasted or fed) in bulimia nervosa. A Bayesian ideal observer model was fit to behavioral data acquired from 22 women remitted from bulimia nervosa and 20 group-matched controls who completed a stop-signal task during two counterbalanced functional MRI sessions, one after a 16 h fast and one after a meal. This model estimates participants' trial-by-trial updating of the probability of a stop signal based on their experienced trial history. Neural analyses focused on control-related Bayesian prediction errors, which quantify the direction and degree of "surprise" an individual experiences on any given trial. Regardless of group, metabolic state did not affect behavioral performance on the task. However, metabolic state modulated group differences in neural activation. In the fed state, women remitted from bulimia nervosa had attenuated prediction-error-dependent activation in the left dorsal caudate. This fed-state activation was lower among women with more frequent past binge eating and self-induced vomiting. When they are in a fed state, individuals with bulimia nervosa may not effectively process unexpected information needed to engage inhibitory control. This may explain the difficulties these individuals have stopping eating after it begins.

Using clinical cutoff scores on the eating disorder examination-questionnaire to evaluate eating disorder symptoms during and after naturalistic intensive treatment.

Clinical cutoff scores for self-report measures provide a means of evaluating clinically significant pathology during and after treatment. A cutoff of 2.8 on the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q) has been recommended to screen for eating disorders (ED). We used this cutoff to assess ED symptoms in adolescents (n = 444) and adults (n = 592) through ED treatment and follow-up. Most patients scored above 2.8 at intake (adolescents 67%, M = 3.21; adults 78%, M = 4.20) and below 2.8 at discharge (adolescents 65%, M = 1.87; adults 66%, M = 2.67), with gains often maintained through follow-up (40% of adolescents and 35% of adults at 12-month follow-up). EDE-Q scores were higher in adults than adolescents and in patients with binge/purge disorders. Results suggest a cutoff of 2.8 on the EDE-Q effectively tracks ED symptom improvement through treatment and discharge. This supports the need for the development of culture-specific and empirically developed clinical cutoffs and their widespread use to evaluate program effectiveness.

Confirmatory factor analysis of Acute Suicidal Affective Disturbance in a sample of treatment-seeking eating disorder patients.

INTRODUCTION: We examined the factor structure of Acute Suicidal Affective Disturbance (ASAD) in individuals with eating disorders. ASAD is a proposed diagnosis with four symptoms: rapidly increasing suicidal intent, social or self-alienation, hopelessness regarding the previous symptoms, and overarousal. METHODS: Patients with eating disorders (N = 378) completed self-report symptom questionnaires at admission to a partial hospitalization program for eating disorders. Using proxy measures, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the one-factor model of ASAD. RESULTS: Initial model fit was poor. We iteratively revised the model to include theoretically-justified correlated residuals (i.e., those between items intended to measure the same ASAD symptom). After these modifications, model fit remained mediocre. We next conducted a multiple-group CFA to compare ASAD between individuals with the restricting subtype of anorexia nervosa (the "ANR" model, n = 145) and individuals with binge/purge disorders (i.e., bulimia nervosa and the binge-purge subtype of anorexia nervosa; the "BP" model, n = 234). The final model had mediocre fit with partial invariance between subgroups; the ASAD factor mean was higher in the BP model. We additionally tested a bifactor model, with similar findings. LIMITATIONS: Our use of proxy measures of ASAD items may have resulted in imprecise measurement of ASAD symptoms, pointing to the importance of future research using validated measures of ASAD. CONCLUSIONS: We found moderate support for ASAD in an eating disorder sample, with invariance between eating disorder phenotypes. Our findings suggest that the ASAD diagnosis may not fully generalize to eating disorder samples.

APOE Genotype Modifies the Association of Fusiform Gyrus Cerebral Metabolic Rate of Oxygen Consumption and Object Naming Performance.

BACKGROUND: The apolipoprotein E (APOE) ɛ4 allele confers risk for age and Alzheimer's disease related cognitive decline but the mechanistic link remains poorly understood. Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response in the fusiform gyrus (FG) during object naming appears greater among APOEɛ4 carriers even in the face of equivalent cognitive performance, suggesting neural compensation. However, BOLD is susceptible to known age and APOE-related vascular changes that could confound its interpretation. OBJECTIVE: To address this limitation, we used calibrated fMRI during an object naming task and a hypercapnic challenge to obtain a more direct measure of neural function - percent change cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen consumption (%ΔCMRO2). METHODS: Participants were 45 older adults without dementia (28 ɛ4-, 17 ɛ4+) between the ages of 65 and 85. We examined APOE-related differences in %ΔCMRO2 in the FG during object naming and the extent to which APOE modified associations between FG %ΔCMRO2 and object naming accuracy. Exploratory analyses also tested the hypothesis that %ΔCMRO2 is less susceptible to vascular compromise than are measures of %ΔCBF and %ΔBOLD. RESULTS: We observed a modifying role of APOE on associations between FG %ΔCMRO2 and cognition, with ɛ4 carriers (but not non-carriers) demonstrating a positive association between right FG %ΔCMRO2 and object naming accuracy. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that the relationship between neural function and cognition is altered among older adult APOEɛ4 carriers prior to the onset of dementia, implicating CMRO2 response as a potential mechanism to support cognition in APOE-related AD risk.

Characterization of parent and youth-reported eating disorder symptoms and premorbid factors in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study.

Objective: Eating Disorders (EDs) often start in adolescence, though the prevalence, trajectory of symptom onset and predictors of illness are poorly understood, especially across sociodemographically diverse youth. Here, we leverage data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development℠ (ABCD) Study, a large demographically representative longitudinal sample of youth in the US, to characterize the prevalence of parent- and youth-reported ED symptoms and their sociodemographic characteristics at baseline (ages 9-11) and two-years later (2-year; ages 11-14). Method: A tetrachoric factor analysis summarized clusters of ED symptoms, which were compared between parent and youth reports. Cognitive, mental and physical health variables at baseline were used to predict youth-reported symptoms at 2-year using a mixed-effects logistic regression. Results: Three factors emerged reflecting "weight distress", "weight control", and "bingeing", with prevalence rates ranging from 1.5 to 7.3%. All symptoms loaded on similar factors between reporters. Rates of symptom endorsement were similar for males and females, with disproportionately higher rates across factors for youth who self-identified as sexual minority, Hispanic, Black, or Mixed race participants, and those from a disadvantaged socioeconomic background, compared to the full ABCD sample. Youth and parent reports at 2-year showed ~17% overlap. A distinct pattern of cognitive variables emerged as significant predictors of later youth-reported ED concerns, whereas mental health symptoms and traits were non-specific and associated with all ED factors. Conclusion: Identifying the landscape of ED symptoms across demographic groups, reporters and their premorbid factors in late childhood is critical to inform prevention and early intervention efforts, with particularly important implications for historically understudied racial and sexual minority groups.

Associations of suicide risk with emotional reactivity, dysregulation, and eating disorder treatment outcomes.

INTRODUCTION: Emotional processes play a role in both suicide risk and eating disorders (EDs), which are often comorbid. However, limited research has explored how emotional processes relate to suicide risk in EDs and the prognostic value of suicide risk for ED treatment. Thus, the current study examined associations between emotion dysregulation and reactivity with suicide risk in patients with EDs, and determined if suicide risk predicts ED treatment outcomes. METHODS: Participants (n = 201) were adults in an ED partial hospitalization program who completed measures at admission, 1-month post-admission, and discharge. RESULTS: When controlling for depressive symptoms, limited access to adaptive emotion regulation strategies, difficulties engaging in goal-oriented behaviors, and engaging in impulsive behavior when experiencing negative emotions (i.e., emotion dysregulation) were associated with suicide attempt frequency. Depressive symptoms were associated with suicide risk severity, while emotion dysregulation and reactivity were not. Importantly, patients with elevated suicide risk at admission improved comparably to other risk categories across treatment, despite presenting with greater ED symptoms at admission. CONCLUSION: Emotion dysregulation and depression are salient factors when examining suicide risk in patients with EDs. Suicide risk and attempt history may not negatively impact ED treatment outcomes when using emotion-focused treatment.

Intact general and food-specific task-switching abilities in bulimia-spectrum eating disorders.

OBJECTIVE: Prior work evaluating cognitive flexibility (i.e., the ability to alter behavior in response to environmental changes) in bulimia-spectrum eating disorders (BN-ED) has produced mixed findings, perhaps due to reliance on set-shifting paradigms that do not effectively isolate cognitive flexibility. Task-switching paradigms are more precise, but no study has examined task-switching in BN-ED. Further, no study has examined whether cognitive flexibility deficits in BN-ED are disorder-specific (e.g., confined to food-related responses). Thus, the present study re-evaluated cognitive flexibility in BN-ED using general and food-specific task-switching paradigms. METHOD: Individuals with BN-ED (n = 28) and healthy controls (HC; n = 39) completed a cued color-shape switching task (CCSST) and a novel food-specific variation (FCCSST). We compared BN-ED and HC on switch costs (reflective of transient task-switching) and mix costs (reflective of maintenance of switching behavior). RESULTS: Switch and mix costs were not significantly different between BN-ED and HC in terms of either accuracy or reaction time on the CCSST or FCCSST. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest neither general nor food-specific cognitive flexibility is impaired in BN-ED. Rigidity in BN-ED (e.g., continued engagement in compensatory behaviors despite psychoeducation that these behaviors are ineffective for weight loss) may be a result of other neurocognitive impairments rather than cognitive flexibility deficits.

Family functioning and eating disorders treatment in a partial hospitalization program in adolescent females with eating disorders.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research examining family functioning in eating disorder (ED) treatment has focused primarily on outpatient settings. However, few studies have examined this aspect in partial hospitalization programs. To address this gap, this study examined family functioning over the course of an ED partial hospitalization program (PHP) in adolescent females (M(SD) age = 15.66 (1.50)). METHOD: Participants (n = 105) completed the Family Assessment Device and Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire at treatment admission, 1-month post-admission, and discharge. RESULTS: Results from repeated measures analysis of variance indicated adolescents perceived an improvement in family functioning regarding Communication, Affective Responsiveness, and Behavioral Control through 1-year follow-up (p values < .05). Neither family functioning at admission nor change in family functioning in the first month correlated with any outcomes (weight, ED symptoms, and remission). DISCUSSION: Results support that family functioning does not contribute to ED severity, and that treatment can improve adolescent perception of family functioning. Given the importance of involving the family in ED treatment, identifying mediators of treatment outcomes is critical to improve treatment efficacy. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Adolescents in a partial hospital program (PHP) for eating disorders (EDs) perceived improvements in their family communication, behavior, and ability to process appropriate emotions from admission to 1-year post-treatment, although these aspects did not significantly predict treatment outcomes. The findings provide helpful information for future research on adolescents with EDs in higher levels of care and underscore the importance of exploring mechanisms of family-based treatment in PHP.

Exploring changes in alexithymia throughout intensive dialectical behavior therapy for eating disorders.

OBJECTIVE: Alexithymia is proposed as a prominent clinical feature of eating disorders (EDs). However, despite theoretical reason to believe that alexithymia could interfere with the success of treatments, few studies have tested whether alexithymia changes over the course of treatment. The goals of the current study were to evaluate (a) changes in alexithymia over the course of intensive Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) for EDs, and (b) associations between alexithymia and ED symptoms over time. METHOD: A mixed-diagnostic group of patients with EDs (N = 894) completed the Eating Disorders Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q) and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) throughout intensive treatment and at various lengths of follow-up (6, 12, 24 months). RESULTS: Results suggested that even after controlling for relevant covariates, there were significant decreases in alexithymia from intake to discharge and discharge to follow-up. Models exploring changes in self-reported ED symptoms indicated that TAS-20 scores significantly related to ED symptoms across timepoints, such that greater alexithymia was associated with greater severity of symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, findings support an association between alexithymia and ED symptoms over treatment and suggest that emotion-focussed therapies like DBT may result in decreases in alexithymia. Future research should explore whether this effect is consistent across therapies without an emotional focus.

Pilot study of a water load test as a measure of gastric interoception in anorexia nervosa.

PURPOSE: Research and clinical experience suggest that individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN) have deficits in gastric interoception, which has been hypothesized to maintain restrictive eating. Behavioral water load tasks (WLTs) have the capability to noninvasively assess gastric interoception; however, to date, no studies have examined WLTs in AN. Thus, the present proof-of-concept pilot study explored the preliminary validity of a WLT in individuals with AN. METHODS: Participants were n = 10 individuals with AN and n = 10 matched-control women (CW). Participants completed self-report questionnaires before and after a WLT, in which participants were asked to drink water until "completely full". RESULTS: Participants with AN drank significantly less water than CW (AN = 240(109.14) milliliters (ml), CW = 398.00(149.21) ml, p = 0.02, Cohen's d = 1.21), but reported greater increases in negative affect pre- to-post-WLT (p = 0.04, partial eta2 = 0.21). Correlations between WLT performance and interoceptive sensibility in AN and CW participants supported the convergent validity of the WLT. CONCLUSION: Preliminary results support the potential utility of the WLT as a behavioral measure of gastric interoception in patients with AN. Future research should examine how response to the WLT changes over the course of intervention and how results are related to treatment outcome. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV: Evidence obtained from multiple time series analysis such as case studies. (NB: Dramatic results in uncontrolled trials might also be regarded as this type of evidence).

Changes in anhedonia over the course of eating disorder treatment.

OBJECTIVE: Anhedonia, a transdiagnostic symptom referring to the loss of ability to experience pleasure, is heightened across eating disorder (ED) diagnoses. This study aimed to assess whether anhedonia changes during ED treatment and explore how changes in anhedonia relate to treatment outcome. METHOD: Adults and adolescents in a partial hospitalization program for EDs (N = 499) completed the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) and the anhedonia subscale of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) at admission and discharge. RESULTS: Anhedonia scores significantly decreased from admission to discharge. Anhedonia at admission was also significantly different across ED diagnostic groups. To examine how study variables related to discharge EDE-Q scores, a hierarchical linear regression was conducted with demographic, diagnostic, and medication variables in the first step, anhedonia and EDE-Q scores at admission added to the second step, and anhedonia at discharge added to the final step. Greater anhedonia at discharge was related to higher EDE-Q scores at discharge. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that anhedonia changes significantly over the course of intensive treatment and changes in anhedonia relate to ED symptoms at discharge. Future research is needed to determine whether specifically targeting anhedonia in ED treatment may influence treatment outcomes. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: The findings from this study suggest that anhedonia may decrease during eating disorder (ED) treatment, and greater anhedonia may relate to elevated ED symptoms. These results provide support for the continued study of anhedonia in ED samples and indicate that anhedonia should be explored as a potential target for novel ED treatments.